References
Adams, J.S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 62, 335-343.
Ainslie, G., & Haslam, N. (1992). Hyperbolic discounting. In G. Loewenstein & J. Elster (Eds.), Choice over time
(pp. 57-92). New York: Russell Sage.
Amsel, A. (1958). The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. Psychological Bulletin, 55,
102-119.
Amsel, A., & Hancock, W. (1957). Motivational properties of frustration: III. Relation of the frustration effect to
antedating goal processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53, 126–131.
Amsel, A. & Roussel, J. (1952). Motivation properties of frustration: I. Effect on a running response of the addition
of frustration to the motivational complex. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 363-368.
Antonovsky, A. (1979). Health, Stress, and Coping. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San-
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Arndt, J., & Solomon, S. (2003). The control of death and the death of control: The effects of mortality salience,
neuroticism, and worldview threat on the desire for control. Journal of Research In Personality, 37, 1-22.
doi:10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00530-5.
Barker, R. R., Dembo, T. T., & Lewin, K. K. (1941). Frustration and regression: an experiment with young children.
University Of Iowa Studies: Child Welfare, 18, xv-314.
Becker, Ernest (1973). The denial of death (1st ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press.
Becker, G. (1999). Disrupted lives: How people create meaning in a chaotic world. Berkley, California: University
of California Press.
Beckman, J. & Gollwitzer, P.M. (1987). Deliberative versus implemental states of mind: The issue of impartiality in
predecisional and postdecisional information processing. Social Cognition, 5, 259-279.
Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. J. (1975). Some exploration in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental
theory of communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112.
Berkowitz, L. L. (1960). Repeated frustrations and expectations in hostility arousal. The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 60, 422-429. doi:10.1037/h0044601.
Billingsea, F. Y., & Bloom, H. (1950). The comparative effect of frustration and success on goal-directed behavior in
the classroom. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 45, 510-515.
Bizer, G. Y., Larsen, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Exploring the valence‐framing effect: Negative framing enhances
attitude strength. Political Psychology, 32, 59-80. doi:10.1111/j.1467 9221.2010.00795.x.
Block, J. H., & Martin, B. (1955). Predicting the behavior of children under frustration. Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 51, 281-285.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism; Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Bonomi, C. (2004). Trauma and the symbolic function of the mind. International Forum Of Psychoanalysis, 13, 45-
50. doi:10.1080/08037060410031052
Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109-131.
Brendl, M. C., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Principles of judging valence: What makes events positive or negative? In M.
Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-106). San Diego: Academic Press.
Britt, S. H., & Janus, S. Q. (1940). Criteria of frustration. Psychological Review, 47, 451-470.
doi:10.1037/h0061381.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32,
515- 531.
Brown, R. W. (1953). A determinant of the relationship between rigidity and authoritarianism. The Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48, 469-476.
Brunstein, J. C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). Effects of failure on subsequent performance: The importance of self-
defining goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 395-407.
Burgoon, J. K. (1995). Cross-cultural and intercultural applications of expectancy violations theory. In R. L.
Wiseman (Ed.) , Intercultural communication theory. Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Burgoon, J. K., & Hale, J. L. (1988). Nonverbal expectancy violations: Model elaboration and application to
immediacy behaviors. Communication Monographs, 55, 58-79.
Burgoon, J.K. (1983). Nonverbal Violations of Expectations: In J.M. Wiemann & R.R. Harrison (Eds.), Nonverbal
Interaction. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Burgoon, M., & Miller, G.R. (1985). An expectancy interpretation of language and persuasion. In H. Giles & R. Clair
(Eds.) The social and psychological contexts of language. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Byrne, S., Allen, K., Dove, E., Watt, F., & Nathan, P. (2008). The reliability and validity of the dichotomous thinking
in eating disorders scale. Eating Behaviors, 9, 154-162. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.07.002.
Caldwell, W. E. (1951). The theory of adaptive differentiation. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and
Applied, 31, 105-109.
Cannon, W. B. (1932). The wisdom of the body. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Carstensen, L.L. (1991). Selectivity theory: Social activity in life-span context. Annual Review of Gerontology and
Geriatrics, 11, 195-217.
Carstensen, L.L. (1993). Motivation for social contact across the life span: A theory of socioemotional selectivity.
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 40, 209-254.
Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications.
Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183-204. doi:10.1037/a0013965.
Carver, C. S., Lehman, J. M., & Antoni, M. H. (2003). Dispositional pessimism predicts illness related disruption
of social and recreational activities among breast cancer patients. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 84, 813-821. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.813.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1999). Themes and issues in the self regulation of behavior. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.),
Perspectives on behavioral self regulation (pp. 1-106). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chen, C. Y., & Hong, R. Y. (2010). Intolerance of uncertainty moderates the relation between negative life events
and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 49-53.
Child, I. L. & Whiting, J. W. M. (1949). Determinants of level of aspiration: evidence from everyday life. Journal of
Abnormal Social Psychology, 44, 304-314.
Clary, E., & Tesser, A. (1983). Reactions to unexpected events: The naive scientist and interpretive activity.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 609-620. doi:10.1177/0146167283094010.
Coleman, J. C. (1989). The focal theory of adolescence: A psychological perspective. In K. Hurrelmann, U. Engel, K.
Hurrelmann, U. Engel (Eds.) , The social world of adolescents: International perspectives. Oxford England:
Walter De Gruyter.
Conway, M., Meares, K., & Standart, S. (2004). Images and goals. Memory, 12, 525-531.
Crano, W. D. (2012). The rules of influence: Winning when you’re in the minority. New York, NY: St. Martin’s
Press.
Crano, W. D., & Prislin, R. (2008). Attitudes and attitude change. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
Cropanzano, R., Citera, M., & Howes, J. (1995). Goal hierarchies and plan revision. Motivation and emotion, 19,
77-98.
Crowe, E., & Higgins, E. T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in
decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 117-132.
Csikszentmihályi, M. (1990). The domain of creativity. In M. A. Runco, R. S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity.
Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications, Inc.
de Jong-Meyer, R., Beck, B., & Riede, K. (2009). Relationships between rumination, worry, intolerance of
uncertainty and metacognitive beliefs. Personality & Individual Differences, 46, 547-551.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.010.
DeShea, L. (2003). A Scenario-Based Scale of Willingness to Forgive. Individual Differences Research, 1, 201-217.
Devins, G. M. (1994). Illness intrusiveness and the psychosocial impact of lifestyle disruption in chronic life-
threatening disease. Advances in Renal Replacement Therapy, 1, 251-264.
Devins, G. M., Binik,Y. M., Hutchinson, T.A., Hollomby, D. J., Barrè, P. E., & Guttmann, R. D. (1983). The
emotional impact of end-stage renal disease: Importance of patients’ perceptions of intrusiveness and control.
International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 13, 327-343.
Dickinson, A., & Balleine, B. (1994). Motivational control of goal directed action. Animal Learning and Behavior,
22, 1-18.
Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O., & Sears, R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Donovan, J.E., Jessor, R., & Costa, F.M. (1991). Adolescent health behavior and conventionality and
unconventionality: An extension of problem-behavior therapy. Health Psychology, 10, 52-61.
Dugas, M. J., Hedayati, M., Karavidas, A., Buhr, K., Francis, K., & Phillips, N. A. (2005). Intolerance of uncertainty
and information processing: Evidence of biased recall and interpretations. Cognitive Therapy and
Research, 29, 57-70.
Dunn, J. R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2005). Feeling and believing: the influence of emotion on trust. Journal of
personality and social psychology, 88, 736-748.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and
Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Elliot-Smith, G. G. (1928). The evolution of man. (2nd ed.). Oxford England: Univ. Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: selected papers. Oxford England: International Universities Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. Oxford England: Norton & Co.
Fazio, R. H. (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of
attitude accessibility. In R. E. Petty, J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences.
Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Fazio, R. H., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1978). Direct experience and attitude-behavior consistency: An information
processing analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 48-51. doi:10.1177/014616727800400109.
Feather, N. T. (1964). A structural balance model of communication effects. Psychological Review, 71, 291-313.
Feather, N. T. (1969). Cognitive differentiation attitude strength, and dogmatism. Journal of Personality, 37, 111-
126. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1969.tb01734.x.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Fishbach, A., & Trope, Y. (2001). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 79, 493-506.
Fishbach, A., Zhang, Y., & Koo, M. (2009). The dynamics of self-regulation. European Review of Social
Psychology, 20, 315-344.
Fredrickson, B. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden and-build theory of
positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218.
Frings, D., Hurst, J., Cleveland, C., Blascovich, J., & Abrams, D. (2012). Challenge, threat, and subjective group
dynamics: Reactions to normative and deviant group members. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, And
Practice, 16, 105-121. doi:10.1037/a0027504.
Fritscher, L. (2011). Cognitive Theory. Retrived from:
http://phobias.about.com/od/glossary/g/cognitivethedef.htm
Fujita, K., & MacGregor, K. E. (2012). Basic goal distinctions. In H. Aarts & A. J. Elliot (Eds.), Goal-Directed
Behavior (pp. 85-114). New York: Psychology Press.
Garon, N., & Moore,C. (2007). Awareness and symbol use improves future-oriented decision making in
preschoolers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 31, 39-59.
Gentry, W. D., & Kirwin, P. M. (1972). Constriction, aggression, and assertive training. Psychological Reports, 30,
297-298.
Gollwitzer, P.M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E.T. Higgins & R.M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of
Motivation and Cognition. New York: Guilford.
Gollwitzer, P.M., Kappes, H. B., & Oettingen, G. (2012). Needs and incentives as sources of goals. In H. Aarts & A. J.
Elliot (Eds.), Goal-Directed Behavior (pp. 115-150). New York: Psychology Press.
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Wicklund, R. A. (1985). The pursuit of self-defining goals. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.),
Action control: From cognition to behavior. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Gollwitzer, P.M., Wicklund, R.A., & Hilton, J.L. (1982). Admission of failure and symbolic self-completion:
Extending Lewinian theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 358–371.
Goomas, D. T. (1978). Effects of consistent to partial reinforcement or partial reinforcement in the Amsel
frustration effect. Psychological Reports, 42, 529-530.
Hale, C. L., & Delia, J. G. (1976). Cognitive complexity and social perspective taking. Communication Monographs,
43, 195-203. doi:10.1080/03637757609375932.
Haner, C. F., & Brown, P. (1955). Clarification of the instigation to action concept in the frustration-aggression
hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 204-206.
Harkness, K. L., & Lumley, M. N. (2007). Child abuse and neglect and the development of depression in children
and adolescents. In J. R. Abela & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents. New
York: Guilford.
Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & McGregor, H. (1997). Terror
management theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduces mortality salience effects.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 24-36.
Harvey, J. H., Harkins, S. G., & Kagehiro, D. K. (1976). Cognitive tuning and the attribution of causality. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 708-715. doi:10.1037/0022 3514.34.4.708.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Henderson, M. D., de Liver, Y., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). The effects of an implemental mind-set on attitude
strength. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 94(3), 396-411. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.396
Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect, Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Hirt, E. R., Melton, R., McDonald, H. E., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Processing goals, task interest, and the
mood–performance relationship: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71,
245-261. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.245.
Hogg, M. A. (2007). Uncertainty-identity theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Hogg, M. A. (2009). Managing self-uncertainty through group identification. Psychological Inquiry, 20, 221-224.
House, W. C., & Perney, V. (1974). Valence of expected and unexpected outcomes as a function of locus of goal and
type of expectancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 454-463. doi:10.1037/h0036123.
Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122.
Jessor, R., & Jessor, S.L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth.
New York: Academic Press.
Jost, J. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. The American Psychologist, 61, 651-670.
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false
consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice, 10, 144-156. Retrieved December 9, 2008, doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg016.
Kelly, B., Raphael, B., Smithers, M., Swanson, C., Reid, C., McLeod, R., & Walpole, E. (1995). Psychological
responses to malignant melanoma. An investigation of traumatic stress reactions to life-threatening illness.
General Hospital Psychiatry, 17, 126-134.
Koenig, F. W., & King, M. R. (1962). Cognitive simplicity and prejudice. Social Forces, 40, 220-222.
doi:10.2307/2573632.
Kohli, S., Batra, P., & Aggarwal, H. K. (2011). Anxiety, locus of control, and coping strategies among end-stage renal
disease patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. Indian Journal of Nephrology, 21, 177-181.
Kregarman, J. J., & Worchel, P. (1961). Arbitrariness of frustration and aggression. The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 63, 183-187. doi:10.1037/h0044667.
Krosnick, J. A., & Petty, R. E. (1995). Attitude strength: An overview. In R. E. Petty, J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude
strength: Antecedents and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: 'Seizing' and 'freezing'. Psychological
Review, 103, 263-283. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263.
Landau, M. J., Greenberg, J., & Sullivan, D. (2009). Defending a coherent autobiography: When past events appear
incoherent, mortality salience prompts compensatory bolstering of the past’s significance and the future’s
orderliness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1012-1020.
Langer, E. J., Moldoveanu, M. (2000). Mindfulness research and the future. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 129.
Lazarus, R.S. (1966). Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lazarus, R.S. & Cohen, J.B. (1977). “Environmental Stress”. In I. Altman and J.F. Wohlwill (eds.), Human Behavior
and Environment. New York: Plenum.
Lazarus, R. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of
Psychology, 44, 1-24.
Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-Esteem as an Interpersonal Monitor: The
Sociometer Hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 518-530.
Lewin, K. (1936). Psychology of success and failure. Occupations, 14, 926-930.
Lewin. K. (1941). Self-hatred among Jews. In K. Lewin (Ed.), Resolving social conflicts: Selected papers on group
dynamics. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Lewin, K. (1951). In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers by Kurt Lewin.
New York: Harper & Row.
Lewin, K., & Gold, M. (1999). The complete social scientist: A Kurt Lewin reader. Washington, D. C.: American
Psychological Association.
Liberman, N. & Forster, J. (2012). Goal gradients, expectancy, and value. In H. Aarts & A. J. Elliot (Eds.), Goal-Directed Behavior (pp. 151-173). New York: Psychology Press.
Lipman-Blumen, J. (1973). Role de-differentiation as a system response to crisis: Occupational and political roles of
women. Sociological Inquiry, 2, 105-129.
Lipman-Blumen, J. (1975). A crisis framework applied to macrosociological family changes: Marriage, divorce, and
occupational trends associated with World War II. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 27, 889-902.
Locke E.A., Saaril, M.S., Shaw, K.N, Latham, G.P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance. Psychological
Bulletin, 90, 125-152.
Lovinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Loewenstein, G., & Elster, J. (Eds.). (1992). Choice over time. New York: Russell Sage.
Lyubomirsky, S., Kasri, F., & Zehm, K. (2003). Dysphoric rumination impairs concentration on academic tasks.
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 309-330. doi:10.1023/A:1023918517378
Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K., Caldwell, N., & Berg, K. (1999). Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: clues from
the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1041-1060.
MacGeorge, E. L., Homan, S. R., Dunning Jr., J. B., Elmore, D., Bodie, G. D., Evans, E., . Geddes, B. (2008). Student
evaluation of audience response technology in large lecture classes. Education Technology Research
Development, 56, 125-145.
Maddux, J. & Rogers, R. (1983). Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and
attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 469-479.
Maier, N. F. (1956). Frustration theory: Restatement and extension. Psychological Review, 63, 370-388.
Mackinnon, D. W. & Henle, M. (1948). Experimental studies in psychodynamics. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 5,
8-19.
Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S.
Uleman, J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
McCain, G. & McVean, G. (1967). Effects of prior reinforcement or nonreinforcement on later performance in a
double alley. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73, 620-627.
McClelland, D. C. & Apicella, F. S. (1947). Reminiscence following experimentally induced failure. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 37, 159-169.
McLaughlin, K. A., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). Stressful life events, anxiety sensitivity, and internalizing
symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 659-669. doi:10.1037/a0016499.
Mendes, W., Blascovich, J., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., & Jost, J. T. (2007). Threatened by the unexpected:
Physiological responses during social interactions with expectancy-violating partners. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 92, 698-716. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.698.
Mertons, R. K. (1938). Science, technology and society in seventeenth century england. Bruges: St. Catherine Press.
Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology (pp. 249-292). New York: Academic Press.
National Center for PTSD. (2007). PTSD Research. Retrieved from
http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/ptsd_research.asp
Nissim, R., Rennie, D., Fleming, S., Hales, S., Gagliese, L., & Rodin, G. (2012). Goals set in the land of the
living/dying: A longitudinal study of patients living with advanced cancer. Death Studies, 36, 360-390.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1984). The Spiral of Silence. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude
change. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1999). The Elaboration likelihood model: Current status and controversies. In S.
Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology. New York: Guilford Press.
Piaget and Inhelder (1958). The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (New York: Basic
Books, 1958).
Pinquart, M., Nixdorf-Hänchen, J. C., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2005). Associations of age and cancer with individual
goal commitment. Applied Developmental Science, 9, 54-66. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0902_2.
Plessow, F., Schade, S., Kirschbaum, C., & Fischer, R. (2012). Better not to deal with two tasks at the same time
when stressed? Acute psychosocial stress reduces task shielding in dual-task performance. Cognitive, Affective,
& Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 557-570. doi: 10.3758/s13415-012-0098-6.
Polonsky, W. H., Fisher, L., Guzman, S., Sieber, W. J., Phillis-Tsimikas, A., & Edelman, S. V. (2010). Are patients’
initial experiences at the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes associated with attitudes and self-management over time?
The Diabetes Educator, 36, 828-834.
Prislin, R. (1996). Attitude stability and attitude strength: One is enough to make it stable. European Journal of
Social Psychology, 26, 447-477. doi:10.1002/(SICI)10990992(199605)26:3<447::AID-EJSP768>3.0.CO;2-I.
Pyszczynski, T. A., & Greenberg, J. (1981). Role of disconfirmed expectancies in the instigation of attributional
processing. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 40, 31-38. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.31.
Raup, R. B. (1925). Complacency: The foundation of human behavior. Macmillan: New York.
Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Kalyanaraman, S. (1999). Mixing virtue with vice: Combining the immediacy effect and
the diversification heuristic. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12, 257-273.
Reed, M.B., & Aspinwall, L.G. (1998). Self-affirmation reduces biased processing of health-risk information.
Motivation and Emotion, 2, 99-132.
Ribeiro, J., & Joiner, E. (2009). The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior: Current status and
future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1291-1299.
Rogers, R. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychology, 91,
93-114.
Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image. (Rev.ed.). Middeltown, CT: Wesleyan
University Press.
Rosenberg, B. D., Lewandowski, J. A., & Siegel, J. T. (in press). Goal disruption theory, the desired end-states of
military personnel, and the creation of merged profiles: A mixed methods investigation.” Journal of Mixed
Methods Research.
Rosenberg, B. D. & Siegel, J. T. (2013). An experimental application of goal disruption theory to persuasive
processes: Psychological disequilibrium, purposive harm endurance, and prescription drugs. Manuscript under
review.
Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Routledge, C., & Juhl, J. (2012). The creative spark of death: The effects of mortality salience and personal need for
structure on creativity. Motivation And Emotion, 36, 478-482. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9274-1.
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state.
Psychological Review, 69, 379-399
Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
ISBN 0-7167-2328-X
Seligman, M.E.P. & Maier, S.F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74,
1-9.
Selye, H. (1950). Stress and the General Adaptation Syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1383-1392.
Sherif, C. (1965). Attitude and attitude change; The social judgment-involvement approach. Philadelphia, PA:
Saunders.
Sherif, M. & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social Judgment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Shows, W., Gentry, W., & Wyrick, L. (1974). Social constriction in psychiatric patients: a normative study. The
American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 1287-1288.
Siegel, J. (2011). Dying for romance: Risk taking as purposive behavior. Psychology, Health, & Medicine, iFirst, 1-8.
Siegel, J. T. (2004). The imaginary audience, the personal fable, and a rival hypothesis: An alternative explanation
for behavior typical of adolescence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona.
Siegel, J.T. & Navarro, M. (2013). Goal Disruption Theory and harm for goal: An empirical investigation.
Manuscript under review.
Siegel, J.T., Crano, W.D., Alvaro, E.A., Lac, A, Rast, D. & Kettering, V. (2012). Dying to be popular: Why do
adolescents go to extremes? In M. A. Hogg & Blaylock, D. (Eds.), Extremism and the psychology of uncertainty.
Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Simon, H. (1990). A mechanism for social selection and successful altruism. Science 250, 1665–8. doi:
10.1126/science.2270480.PMID 2270480.
Simon, H. (1991). Bounded Rationality and Organizational Learning. Organization Science 2, 125–134. doi:
10.1287/orsc.2.1.125.
Smock, C. D. (1955). The influence of psychological stress on the 'intolerance of ambiguity.'. The Journal Of
Abnormal And Social Psychology, 50, 177-182. doi:10.1037/h0047951.
Steele, C. (1983). Dissonance process as self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45,
5.
Tait, R., & Silver, R. (1989). Coming to terms with major negative life events. In J. S. Uleman, J. A. Bargh (Eds.),
Unintended thought. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin
(Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
Thompson, M. M., Naccarato, M. E., & Parker, K. E. (1989, June). Assessing cognitive need: The development of the
Personal Need for Structure and Personal Fear of Invalidity scales. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
Canadian Psychological Association, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Thompson, R. J., & Kolstoe, R. H. (1974). Physical aggression as a function of strength of frustration and
instrumentality of aggression. Journal Of Research In Personality, 7, 314-323. doi:10.1016/0092-
6566(74)90053-1
Tolman, E. (1951). Collected papers in psychology. Berkeley, CA US: University of California Press.
Tolman, E. C. (1925). Purpose and cognition: The determiners of animal learning. Psychological Review, 32, 285-
297.
Tolman, E.C. (1926). A behavioristic theory of ideas. Psychological Review. 33, 252-369.
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York: Century.
Tolman, E. C. (1937). Demands and conflicts. Psychological Review, 44, 158-169.
Tolman, E. C. (1941). Psychological man. The Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 205-218.
Tolman, E. C. (1945). A stimulus-expectancy need-cathexis psychology. Science, 101, 160-166.
Tolman, E. C. (1949). There is more than one kind of learning. Psychological Review, 9, 536-538.
Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. Psychology: A study of a science, 2, 92-157.
Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kelsey, R. M., & Leitten, C. L. (1993). Subjective, physiological, and behavioral effects of
threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 248-260. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.65.2.248.
Trope, Y., & Pomerantz, E. M. (1998). Resolving conflicts among self-evaluative motives: Positive experiences as a
resource for overcoming defensiveness. Motivation And Emotion, 22, 53-72. doi:10.1023/A:1023044625309.
Turner, J. C. & Oakes, P. J. (1986). The significance of the social identity concept for social psychology with
reference to individualism, interactionism and social influence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 237-
252.
Van der Veek, S.M.C., Kraaij, V., Van Koppen, W., & Garnefski, N., & Joekes, K. (2007). Goal disturbance, cognitive
coping and psychological distress in HIV-infected persons. Journal of Health Psychology, 12, 225-230.
van Randenborgh, A., Hüffmeier, J., LeMoult, J., & Joormann, J. (2010). Letting go of unmet goals: Does self-
focused rumination impair goal disengagement?. Motivation And Emotion, 34, 325-332. doi:10.1007/s11031-
010-9190-9.
Weiss, D. S. (2004). The impact of event scale-revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing
psychological trauma and PTSD: A practitioner’s handbook (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford.
Wicklund, R. A. & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1982). Symbolic self-completion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wiggins, J. A. (1965). Interaction structure, frustration, and the extensiveness and intensity of aggression.
Sociometry, 28, 89-99. doi:10.2307/2786088.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245.
Wolff, H., & Moser, K. (2008). Choice, accountability, and effortful processing in escalation situations. Journal of
Psychology, 216, 235-243.
Wolkon, G. H. (1972). Crisis theory, the application for treatment, and dependency. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 13,
459-464.
Woolgar, A., Hampshire, A., Thompson, R., & Duncan, J. (2011). Adaptive coding of task relevant information in
frontoparietal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 14592-14599.
Wright, R. A. (1996). Brehm’s theory of motivation as a model of effort and cardiovascular response. In P. M.
Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp.
424-453). New York, NY: Guilford.
Young, J. S., Cashwell, C. S., & Shcherbakova, J. (2000). The moderating relationship of spirituality on negative life
events and psychological adjustment. Counseling and Values, 45, 49-57.
Zander, A. F. (1944). A study of experimental frustration. Psychological Monographs, 56, i-38.
Ziller, R. C. (1971). A helical theory of personal change. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 1, 33-73.
Zotter, D. L., & Crowther, J. H. (1991). The role of cognitions in bulimia nervosa. Cognitive Therapy and Research,
15, 413-426.
Ainslie, G., & Haslam, N. (1992). Hyperbolic discounting. In G. Loewenstein & J. Elster (Eds.), Choice over time
(pp. 57-92). New York: Russell Sage.
Amsel, A. (1958). The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. Psychological Bulletin, 55,
102-119.
Amsel, A., & Hancock, W. (1957). Motivational properties of frustration: III. Relation of the frustration effect to
antedating goal processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53, 126–131.
Amsel, A. & Roussel, J. (1952). Motivation properties of frustration: I. Effect on a running response of the addition
of frustration to the motivational complex. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 363-368.
Antonovsky, A. (1979). Health, Stress, and Coping. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San-
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Arndt, J., & Solomon, S. (2003). The control of death and the death of control: The effects of mortality salience,
neuroticism, and worldview threat on the desire for control. Journal of Research In Personality, 37, 1-22.
doi:10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00530-5.
Barker, R. R., Dembo, T. T., & Lewin, K. K. (1941). Frustration and regression: an experiment with young children.
University Of Iowa Studies: Child Welfare, 18, xv-314.
Becker, Ernest (1973). The denial of death (1st ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press.
Becker, G. (1999). Disrupted lives: How people create meaning in a chaotic world. Berkley, California: University
of California Press.
Beckman, J. & Gollwitzer, P.M. (1987). Deliberative versus implemental states of mind: The issue of impartiality in
predecisional and postdecisional information processing. Social Cognition, 5, 259-279.
Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. J. (1975). Some exploration in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental
theory of communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112.
Berkowitz, L. L. (1960). Repeated frustrations and expectations in hostility arousal. The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 60, 422-429. doi:10.1037/h0044601.
Billingsea, F. Y., & Bloom, H. (1950). The comparative effect of frustration and success on goal-directed behavior in
the classroom. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 45, 510-515.
Bizer, G. Y., Larsen, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Exploring the valence‐framing effect: Negative framing enhances
attitude strength. Political Psychology, 32, 59-80. doi:10.1111/j.1467 9221.2010.00795.x.
Block, J. H., & Martin, B. (1955). Predicting the behavior of children under frustration. Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 51, 281-285.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism; Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Bonomi, C. (2004). Trauma and the symbolic function of the mind. International Forum Of Psychoanalysis, 13, 45-
50. doi:10.1080/08037060410031052
Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109-131.
Brendl, M. C., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Principles of judging valence: What makes events positive or negative? In M.
Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-106). San Diego: Academic Press.
Britt, S. H., & Janus, S. Q. (1940). Criteria of frustration. Psychological Review, 47, 451-470.
doi:10.1037/h0061381.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32,
515- 531.
Brown, R. W. (1953). A determinant of the relationship between rigidity and authoritarianism. The Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48, 469-476.
Brunstein, J. C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). Effects of failure on subsequent performance: The importance of self-
defining goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 395-407.
Burgoon, J. K. (1995). Cross-cultural and intercultural applications of expectancy violations theory. In R. L.
Wiseman (Ed.) , Intercultural communication theory. Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Burgoon, J. K., & Hale, J. L. (1988). Nonverbal expectancy violations: Model elaboration and application to
immediacy behaviors. Communication Monographs, 55, 58-79.
Burgoon, J.K. (1983). Nonverbal Violations of Expectations: In J.M. Wiemann & R.R. Harrison (Eds.), Nonverbal
Interaction. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Burgoon, M., & Miller, G.R. (1985). An expectancy interpretation of language and persuasion. In H. Giles & R. Clair
(Eds.) The social and psychological contexts of language. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Byrne, S., Allen, K., Dove, E., Watt, F., & Nathan, P. (2008). The reliability and validity of the dichotomous thinking
in eating disorders scale. Eating Behaviors, 9, 154-162. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.07.002.
Caldwell, W. E. (1951). The theory of adaptive differentiation. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and
Applied, 31, 105-109.
Cannon, W. B. (1932). The wisdom of the body. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Carstensen, L.L. (1991). Selectivity theory: Social activity in life-span context. Annual Review of Gerontology and
Geriatrics, 11, 195-217.
Carstensen, L.L. (1993). Motivation for social contact across the life span: A theory of socioemotional selectivity.
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 40, 209-254.
Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications.
Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183-204. doi:10.1037/a0013965.
Carver, C. S., Lehman, J. M., & Antoni, M. H. (2003). Dispositional pessimism predicts illness related disruption
of social and recreational activities among breast cancer patients. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 84, 813-821. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.813.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1999). Themes and issues in the self regulation of behavior. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.),
Perspectives on behavioral self regulation (pp. 1-106). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chen, C. Y., & Hong, R. Y. (2010). Intolerance of uncertainty moderates the relation between negative life events
and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 49-53.
Child, I. L. & Whiting, J. W. M. (1949). Determinants of level of aspiration: evidence from everyday life. Journal of
Abnormal Social Psychology, 44, 304-314.
Clary, E., & Tesser, A. (1983). Reactions to unexpected events: The naive scientist and interpretive activity.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 609-620. doi:10.1177/0146167283094010.
Coleman, J. C. (1989). The focal theory of adolescence: A psychological perspective. In K. Hurrelmann, U. Engel, K.
Hurrelmann, U. Engel (Eds.) , The social world of adolescents: International perspectives. Oxford England:
Walter De Gruyter.
Conway, M., Meares, K., & Standart, S. (2004). Images and goals. Memory, 12, 525-531.
Crano, W. D. (2012). The rules of influence: Winning when you’re in the minority. New York, NY: St. Martin’s
Press.
Crano, W. D., & Prislin, R. (2008). Attitudes and attitude change. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
Cropanzano, R., Citera, M., & Howes, J. (1995). Goal hierarchies and plan revision. Motivation and emotion, 19,
77-98.
Crowe, E., & Higgins, E. T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in
decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 117-132.
Csikszentmihályi, M. (1990). The domain of creativity. In M. A. Runco, R. S. Albert (Eds.), Theories of creativity.
Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications, Inc.
de Jong-Meyer, R., Beck, B., & Riede, K. (2009). Relationships between rumination, worry, intolerance of
uncertainty and metacognitive beliefs. Personality & Individual Differences, 46, 547-551.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.010.
DeShea, L. (2003). A Scenario-Based Scale of Willingness to Forgive. Individual Differences Research, 1, 201-217.
Devins, G. M. (1994). Illness intrusiveness and the psychosocial impact of lifestyle disruption in chronic life-
threatening disease. Advances in Renal Replacement Therapy, 1, 251-264.
Devins, G. M., Binik,Y. M., Hutchinson, T.A., Hollomby, D. J., Barrè, P. E., & Guttmann, R. D. (1983). The
emotional impact of end-stage renal disease: Importance of patients’ perceptions of intrusiveness and control.
International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 13, 327-343.
Dickinson, A., & Balleine, B. (1994). Motivational control of goal directed action. Animal Learning and Behavior,
22, 1-18.
Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O., & Sears, R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Donovan, J.E., Jessor, R., & Costa, F.M. (1991). Adolescent health behavior and conventionality and
unconventionality: An extension of problem-behavior therapy. Health Psychology, 10, 52-61.
Dugas, M. J., Hedayati, M., Karavidas, A., Buhr, K., Francis, K., & Phillips, N. A. (2005). Intolerance of uncertainty
and information processing: Evidence of biased recall and interpretations. Cognitive Therapy and
Research, 29, 57-70.
Dunn, J. R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2005). Feeling and believing: the influence of emotion on trust. Journal of
personality and social psychology, 88, 736-748.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and
Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Elliot-Smith, G. G. (1928). The evolution of man. (2nd ed.). Oxford England: Univ. Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: selected papers. Oxford England: International Universities Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. Oxford England: Norton & Co.
Fazio, R. H. (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of
attitude accessibility. In R. E. Petty, J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences.
Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Fazio, R. H., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1978). Direct experience and attitude-behavior consistency: An information
processing analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 48-51. doi:10.1177/014616727800400109.
Feather, N. T. (1964). A structural balance model of communication effects. Psychological Review, 71, 291-313.
Feather, N. T. (1969). Cognitive differentiation attitude strength, and dogmatism. Journal of Personality, 37, 111-
126. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1969.tb01734.x.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Fishbach, A., & Trope, Y. (2001). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 79, 493-506.
Fishbach, A., Zhang, Y., & Koo, M. (2009). The dynamics of self-regulation. European Review of Social
Psychology, 20, 315-344.
Fredrickson, B. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden and-build theory of
positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218.
Frings, D., Hurst, J., Cleveland, C., Blascovich, J., & Abrams, D. (2012). Challenge, threat, and subjective group
dynamics: Reactions to normative and deviant group members. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, And
Practice, 16, 105-121. doi:10.1037/a0027504.
Fritscher, L. (2011). Cognitive Theory. Retrived from:
http://phobias.about.com/od/glossary/g/cognitivethedef.htm
Fujita, K., & MacGregor, K. E. (2012). Basic goal distinctions. In H. Aarts & A. J. Elliot (Eds.), Goal-Directed
Behavior (pp. 85-114). New York: Psychology Press.
Garon, N., & Moore,C. (2007). Awareness and symbol use improves future-oriented decision making in
preschoolers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 31, 39-59.
Gentry, W. D., & Kirwin, P. M. (1972). Constriction, aggression, and assertive training. Psychological Reports, 30,
297-298.
Gollwitzer, P.M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E.T. Higgins & R.M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of
Motivation and Cognition. New York: Guilford.
Gollwitzer, P.M., Kappes, H. B., & Oettingen, G. (2012). Needs and incentives as sources of goals. In H. Aarts & A. J.
Elliot (Eds.), Goal-Directed Behavior (pp. 115-150). New York: Psychology Press.
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Wicklund, R. A. (1985). The pursuit of self-defining goals. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.),
Action control: From cognition to behavior. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Gollwitzer, P.M., Wicklund, R.A., & Hilton, J.L. (1982). Admission of failure and symbolic self-completion:
Extending Lewinian theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 358–371.
Goomas, D. T. (1978). Effects of consistent to partial reinforcement or partial reinforcement in the Amsel
frustration effect. Psychological Reports, 42, 529-530.
Hale, C. L., & Delia, J. G. (1976). Cognitive complexity and social perspective taking. Communication Monographs,
43, 195-203. doi:10.1080/03637757609375932.
Haner, C. F., & Brown, P. (1955). Clarification of the instigation to action concept in the frustration-aggression
hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 204-206.
Harkness, K. L., & Lumley, M. N. (2007). Child abuse and neglect and the development of depression in children
and adolescents. In J. R. Abela & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents. New
York: Guilford.
Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & McGregor, H. (1997). Terror
management theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduces mortality salience effects.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 24-36.
Harvey, J. H., Harkins, S. G., & Kagehiro, D. K. (1976). Cognitive tuning and the attribution of causality. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 708-715. doi:10.1037/0022 3514.34.4.708.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Henderson, M. D., de Liver, Y., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). The effects of an implemental mind-set on attitude
strength. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 94(3), 396-411. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.396
Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect, Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Hirt, E. R., Melton, R., McDonald, H. E., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Processing goals, task interest, and the
mood–performance relationship: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71,
245-261. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.245.
Hogg, M. A. (2007). Uncertainty-identity theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Hogg, M. A. (2009). Managing self-uncertainty through group identification. Psychological Inquiry, 20, 221-224.
House, W. C., & Perney, V. (1974). Valence of expected and unexpected outcomes as a function of locus of goal and
type of expectancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 454-463. doi:10.1037/h0036123.
Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122.
Jessor, R., & Jessor, S.L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth.
New York: Academic Press.
Jost, J. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. The American Psychologist, 61, 651-670.
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false
consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice, 10, 144-156. Retrieved December 9, 2008, doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg016.
Kelly, B., Raphael, B., Smithers, M., Swanson, C., Reid, C., McLeod, R., & Walpole, E. (1995). Psychological
responses to malignant melanoma. An investigation of traumatic stress reactions to life-threatening illness.
General Hospital Psychiatry, 17, 126-134.
Koenig, F. W., & King, M. R. (1962). Cognitive simplicity and prejudice. Social Forces, 40, 220-222.
doi:10.2307/2573632.
Kohli, S., Batra, P., & Aggarwal, H. K. (2011). Anxiety, locus of control, and coping strategies among end-stage renal
disease patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. Indian Journal of Nephrology, 21, 177-181.
Kregarman, J. J., & Worchel, P. (1961). Arbitrariness of frustration and aggression. The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 63, 183-187. doi:10.1037/h0044667.
Krosnick, J. A., & Petty, R. E. (1995). Attitude strength: An overview. In R. E. Petty, J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude
strength: Antecedents and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: 'Seizing' and 'freezing'. Psychological
Review, 103, 263-283. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263.
Landau, M. J., Greenberg, J., & Sullivan, D. (2009). Defending a coherent autobiography: When past events appear
incoherent, mortality salience prompts compensatory bolstering of the past’s significance and the future’s
orderliness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1012-1020.
Langer, E. J., Moldoveanu, M. (2000). Mindfulness research and the future. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 129.
Lazarus, R.S. (1966). Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lazarus, R.S. & Cohen, J.B. (1977). “Environmental Stress”. In I. Altman and J.F. Wohlwill (eds.), Human Behavior
and Environment. New York: Plenum.
Lazarus, R. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of
Psychology, 44, 1-24.
Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-Esteem as an Interpersonal Monitor: The
Sociometer Hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 518-530.
Lewin, K. (1936). Psychology of success and failure. Occupations, 14, 926-930.
Lewin. K. (1941). Self-hatred among Jews. In K. Lewin (Ed.), Resolving social conflicts: Selected papers on group
dynamics. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Lewin, K. (1951). In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers by Kurt Lewin.
New York: Harper & Row.
Lewin, K., & Gold, M. (1999). The complete social scientist: A Kurt Lewin reader. Washington, D. C.: American
Psychological Association.
Liberman, N. & Forster, J. (2012). Goal gradients, expectancy, and value. In H. Aarts & A. J. Elliot (Eds.), Goal-Directed Behavior (pp. 151-173). New York: Psychology Press.
Lipman-Blumen, J. (1973). Role de-differentiation as a system response to crisis: Occupational and political roles of
women. Sociological Inquiry, 2, 105-129.
Lipman-Blumen, J. (1975). A crisis framework applied to macrosociological family changes: Marriage, divorce, and
occupational trends associated with World War II. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 27, 889-902.
Locke E.A., Saaril, M.S., Shaw, K.N, Latham, G.P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance. Psychological
Bulletin, 90, 125-152.
Lovinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Loewenstein, G., & Elster, J. (Eds.). (1992). Choice over time. New York: Russell Sage.
Lyubomirsky, S., Kasri, F., & Zehm, K. (2003). Dysphoric rumination impairs concentration on academic tasks.
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 309-330. doi:10.1023/A:1023918517378
Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K., Caldwell, N., & Berg, K. (1999). Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: clues from
the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1041-1060.
MacGeorge, E. L., Homan, S. R., Dunning Jr., J. B., Elmore, D., Bodie, G. D., Evans, E., . Geddes, B. (2008). Student
evaluation of audience response technology in large lecture classes. Education Technology Research
Development, 56, 125-145.
Maddux, J. & Rogers, R. (1983). Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and
attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 469-479.
Maier, N. F. (1956). Frustration theory: Restatement and extension. Psychological Review, 63, 370-388.
Mackinnon, D. W. & Henle, M. (1948). Experimental studies in psychodynamics. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 5,
8-19.
Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S.
Uleman, J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
McCain, G. & McVean, G. (1967). Effects of prior reinforcement or nonreinforcement on later performance in a
double alley. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73, 620-627.
McClelland, D. C. & Apicella, F. S. (1947). Reminiscence following experimentally induced failure. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 37, 159-169.
McLaughlin, K. A., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). Stressful life events, anxiety sensitivity, and internalizing
symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 659-669. doi:10.1037/a0016499.
Mendes, W., Blascovich, J., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., & Jost, J. T. (2007). Threatened by the unexpected:
Physiological responses during social interactions with expectancy-violating partners. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 92, 698-716. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.698.
Mertons, R. K. (1938). Science, technology and society in seventeenth century england. Bruges: St. Catherine Press.
Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social
psychology (pp. 249-292). New York: Academic Press.
National Center for PTSD. (2007). PTSD Research. Retrieved from
http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/ptsd_research.asp
Nissim, R., Rennie, D., Fleming, S., Hales, S., Gagliese, L., & Rodin, G. (2012). Goals set in the land of the
living/dying: A longitudinal study of patients living with advanced cancer. Death Studies, 36, 360-390.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1984). The Spiral of Silence. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude
change. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1999). The Elaboration likelihood model: Current status and controversies. In S.
Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology. New York: Guilford Press.
Piaget and Inhelder (1958). The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (New York: Basic
Books, 1958).
Pinquart, M., Nixdorf-Hänchen, J. C., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2005). Associations of age and cancer with individual
goal commitment. Applied Developmental Science, 9, 54-66. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0902_2.
Plessow, F., Schade, S., Kirschbaum, C., & Fischer, R. (2012). Better not to deal with two tasks at the same time
when stressed? Acute psychosocial stress reduces task shielding in dual-task performance. Cognitive, Affective,
& Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 557-570. doi: 10.3758/s13415-012-0098-6.
Polonsky, W. H., Fisher, L., Guzman, S., Sieber, W. J., Phillis-Tsimikas, A., & Edelman, S. V. (2010). Are patients’
initial experiences at the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes associated with attitudes and self-management over time?
The Diabetes Educator, 36, 828-834.
Prislin, R. (1996). Attitude stability and attitude strength: One is enough to make it stable. European Journal of
Social Psychology, 26, 447-477. doi:10.1002/(SICI)10990992(199605)26:3<447::AID-EJSP768>3.0.CO;2-I.
Pyszczynski, T. A., & Greenberg, J. (1981). Role of disconfirmed expectancies in the instigation of attributional
processing. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 40, 31-38. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.31.
Raup, R. B. (1925). Complacency: The foundation of human behavior. Macmillan: New York.
Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Kalyanaraman, S. (1999). Mixing virtue with vice: Combining the immediacy effect and
the diversification heuristic. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12, 257-273.
Reed, M.B., & Aspinwall, L.G. (1998). Self-affirmation reduces biased processing of health-risk information.
Motivation and Emotion, 2, 99-132.
Ribeiro, J., & Joiner, E. (2009). The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior: Current status and
future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 1291-1299.
Rogers, R. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychology, 91,
93-114.
Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image. (Rev.ed.). Middeltown, CT: Wesleyan
University Press.
Rosenberg, B. D., Lewandowski, J. A., & Siegel, J. T. (in press). Goal disruption theory, the desired end-states of
military personnel, and the creation of merged profiles: A mixed methods investigation.” Journal of Mixed
Methods Research.
Rosenberg, B. D. & Siegel, J. T. (2013). An experimental application of goal disruption theory to persuasive
processes: Psychological disequilibrium, purposive harm endurance, and prescription drugs. Manuscript under
review.
Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Routledge, C., & Juhl, J. (2012). The creative spark of death: The effects of mortality salience and personal need for
structure on creativity. Motivation And Emotion, 36, 478-482. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9274-1.
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state.
Psychological Review, 69, 379-399
Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
ISBN 0-7167-2328-X
Seligman, M.E.P. & Maier, S.F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74,
1-9.
Selye, H. (1950). Stress and the General Adaptation Syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1383-1392.
Sherif, C. (1965). Attitude and attitude change; The social judgment-involvement approach. Philadelphia, PA:
Saunders.
Sherif, M. & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social Judgment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Shows, W., Gentry, W., & Wyrick, L. (1974). Social constriction in psychiatric patients: a normative study. The
American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 1287-1288.
Siegel, J. (2011). Dying for romance: Risk taking as purposive behavior. Psychology, Health, & Medicine, iFirst, 1-8.
Siegel, J. T. (2004). The imaginary audience, the personal fable, and a rival hypothesis: An alternative explanation
for behavior typical of adolescence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona.
Siegel, J.T. & Navarro, M. (2013). Goal Disruption Theory and harm for goal: An empirical investigation.
Manuscript under review.
Siegel, J.T., Crano, W.D., Alvaro, E.A., Lac, A, Rast, D. & Kettering, V. (2012). Dying to be popular: Why do
adolescents go to extremes? In M. A. Hogg & Blaylock, D. (Eds.), Extremism and the psychology of uncertainty.
Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Simon, H. (1990). A mechanism for social selection and successful altruism. Science 250, 1665–8. doi:
10.1126/science.2270480.PMID 2270480.
Simon, H. (1991). Bounded Rationality and Organizational Learning. Organization Science 2, 125–134. doi:
10.1287/orsc.2.1.125.
Smock, C. D. (1955). The influence of psychological stress on the 'intolerance of ambiguity.'. The Journal Of
Abnormal And Social Psychology, 50, 177-182. doi:10.1037/h0047951.
Steele, C. (1983). Dissonance process as self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45,
5.
Tait, R., & Silver, R. (1989). Coming to terms with major negative life events. In J. S. Uleman, J. A. Bargh (Eds.),
Unintended thought. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin
(Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
Thompson, M. M., Naccarato, M. E., & Parker, K. E. (1989, June). Assessing cognitive need: The development of the
Personal Need for Structure and Personal Fear of Invalidity scales. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
Canadian Psychological Association, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Thompson, R. J., & Kolstoe, R. H. (1974). Physical aggression as a function of strength of frustration and
instrumentality of aggression. Journal Of Research In Personality, 7, 314-323. doi:10.1016/0092-
6566(74)90053-1
Tolman, E. (1951). Collected papers in psychology. Berkeley, CA US: University of California Press.
Tolman, E. C. (1925). Purpose and cognition: The determiners of animal learning. Psychological Review, 32, 285-
297.
Tolman, E.C. (1926). A behavioristic theory of ideas. Psychological Review. 33, 252-369.
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York: Century.
Tolman, E. C. (1937). Demands and conflicts. Psychological Review, 44, 158-169.
Tolman, E. C. (1941). Psychological man. The Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 205-218.
Tolman, E. C. (1945). A stimulus-expectancy need-cathexis psychology. Science, 101, 160-166.
Tolman, E. C. (1949). There is more than one kind of learning. Psychological Review, 9, 536-538.
Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. Psychology: A study of a science, 2, 92-157.
Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kelsey, R. M., & Leitten, C. L. (1993). Subjective, physiological, and behavioral effects of
threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 248-260. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.65.2.248.
Trope, Y., & Pomerantz, E. M. (1998). Resolving conflicts among self-evaluative motives: Positive experiences as a
resource for overcoming defensiveness. Motivation And Emotion, 22, 53-72. doi:10.1023/A:1023044625309.
Turner, J. C. & Oakes, P. J. (1986). The significance of the social identity concept for social psychology with
reference to individualism, interactionism and social influence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 237-
252.
Van der Veek, S.M.C., Kraaij, V., Van Koppen, W., & Garnefski, N., & Joekes, K. (2007). Goal disturbance, cognitive
coping and psychological distress in HIV-infected persons. Journal of Health Psychology, 12, 225-230.
van Randenborgh, A., Hüffmeier, J., LeMoult, J., & Joormann, J. (2010). Letting go of unmet goals: Does self-
focused rumination impair goal disengagement?. Motivation And Emotion, 34, 325-332. doi:10.1007/s11031-
010-9190-9.
Weiss, D. S. (2004). The impact of event scale-revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing
psychological trauma and PTSD: A practitioner’s handbook (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford.
Wicklund, R. A. & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1982). Symbolic self-completion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wiggins, J. A. (1965). Interaction structure, frustration, and the extensiveness and intensity of aggression.
Sociometry, 28, 89-99. doi:10.2307/2786088.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245.
Wolff, H., & Moser, K. (2008). Choice, accountability, and effortful processing in escalation situations. Journal of
Psychology, 216, 235-243.
Wolkon, G. H. (1972). Crisis theory, the application for treatment, and dependency. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 13,
459-464.
Woolgar, A., Hampshire, A., Thompson, R., & Duncan, J. (2011). Adaptive coding of task relevant information in
frontoparietal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 14592-14599.
Wright, R. A. (1996). Brehm’s theory of motivation as a model of effort and cardiovascular response. In P. M.
Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp.
424-453). New York, NY: Guilford.
Young, J. S., Cashwell, C. S., & Shcherbakova, J. (2000). The moderating relationship of spirituality on negative life
events and psychological adjustment. Counseling and Values, 45, 49-57.
Zander, A. F. (1944). A study of experimental frustration. Psychological Monographs, 56, i-38.
Ziller, R. C. (1971). A helical theory of personal change. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 1, 33-73.
Zotter, D. L., & Crowther, J. H. (1991). The role of cognitions in bulimia nervosa. Cognitive Therapy and Research,
15, 413-426.